Various Types of Transactions – Part 5, Disbursement or Release of Principal Sum of Loans or Borrowings from Third Parties

Business entities may apply for loans or borrow money from third parties (usually financial institutions; sometimes in the form of short term loans or advances from owners, directors & etc.). THIS IS NOT A SOURCE OF REVENUE OR OTHER INCOME. This is because the principal sum borrowed is a liability (resource – money that you get from others temporarily and you need to pay the price for this – interest). I include it together with the series of discussion of revenue and other income to follow the sequence of discussing various types of transactions appearing in the cash book. Upon fulfilling the terms and conditions set and agreement reached between the borrowers and the lenders, the principal sum of the loan will be realeased to the borrowers

The double entry involved in the recording of the realease of the loan is as follows:-

 

Balance Sheet

Income Statement

 

DR

CR

DR

CR

Cash at bank

24,000

     
Loan from XXX Bank

 

24,000

 

 

A decision need to be made as to whether the loan should be classified as current liability or non-current liability. This involves “splitting” the loan into the current portion and non-current portion in accordance with the repayment terms. Some business entities do not split the loan into current and non-current since it received the realease of the loan, nor during the financial year. The splitting of the loan into current and non-current portion is done ONLY as at the end of the financial year for proper financial statements presentation purposes. This is achieved by way of a reclassification journal entry once the current portion and non-current portion of the loan is calculated (this must be reflective of the position of the loan to the business entities as at the end of the financial year).

Assume the $24,000 loan received from XXX Bank is repayable over 5 years with monthly principal repayment of $500 (the interest on loan is purposely omitted), and as at the end of the financial year, the balance of the loan is $19,500 (This means 9 installments of $500 have been repaid). The portion of the loan to be classified as current liability is $6,000 (i.e. the amount expected to be repaid over the next 12 months from the end of the financial year, $500 x 12 months). The non-current portion of the loan is therefore $13,500 ($19,500 – $6,000). Assume the Loan from XXX Bank was originally classified as a current liabilities account, the reclassification journal entry is:-

 

Balance Sheet

Income Statement

 

DR

CR

DR

CR

Loan from XXX Bank (Current liabilities)

13,500

     
Loan from XXX Bank (Non-Current liabilities)

 

 

13,500

 

 

Further Example

The financial period of ABC Co. Ltd. is from 1 January to 31 December. On 1 January 2006, ABC Co. Ltd receive $100,000 loan from Northern Bank upon approval of its application submitted earlier. Interest is charged at 7% per annum calculated monthly. Based on these terms, the repayment schedule is tabulated as follows:-

Example Of Loan Repayment Schedule 

Assume ABC Co. Ltd. pays the installments on time

The double entries to record the transactions during the year ended 31 December 2006 are as follows:-

 

Balance Sheet

Income Statement

 

DR

CR

DR

CR

1 January 2006

 

     
 

 

     
Cash at bank

100,000

     
Loan from Northern  Bank

 

 

100,000

 

 

 

 

     
31 January 2006

 

     
 

 

     
Loan from Northern Bank

1,396.67

     
Interest expense

 

 

583.33

 
Cash at bank

 

1,980

   
(Please refer to instalment No. 1 of the repayment schedule)

 

     
 

 

     
28 February 2006

 

     
 

 

     
Loan from Northern Bank

1,404.81

     
Interest expense

 

 

575.19

 
Cash at bank

 

1,980

   
(Please refer to instalment No. 2 of the repayment schedule)

 

     
 

 

     
31 March 2006

 

     
 

 

     
Loan from Northern Bank

1,413.01

     
Interest expense

 

 

566.99

 
Cash at bank

 

1,980

   
(Please refer to instalment No. 3 of the repayment schedule)

 

     
 

 

     
30 April 2006

 

     
 

 

     
Loan from Northern Bank

1,421.25

     
Interest expense

 

 

558.75

 
Cash at bank

 

1,980

   
(Please refer to instalment No. 4 of the repayment schedule)

 

     
 

 

     
31 May 2006

 

     
 

 

     
Loan from Northern Bank

1,429.54

     
Interest expense

 

 

550.46

 
Cash at bank

 

1,980

   
(Please refer to instalment No. 5 of the repayment schedule)

 

     
 

 

     
30 June 2006

 

     
 

 

     
Loan from Northern Bank

1,437.88

     
Interest expense

 

 

542.12

 
Cash at bank

 

1,980

   
(Please refer to instalment No. 6 of the repayment schedule)

 

     
 

 

     
31 July 2006

 

     
 

 

     
Loan from Northern Bank

1,446.27

     
Interest expense

 

 

533.73

 
Cash at bank

 

1,980

   
(Please refer to instalment No. 7 of the repayment schedule)

 

     
 

 

     
31 August 2006

 

     
 

 

     
Loan from Northern Bank

1,454.71

     
Interest expense

 

 

525.29

 
Cash at bank

 

1,980

   
(Please refer to instalment No. 8 of the repayment schedule)

 

     
 

 

     
30 September 2006

 

     
 

 

     
Loan from Northern Bank

1,463.19

     
Interest expense

 

 

516.81

 
Cash at bank

 

1,980

   
(Please refer to instalment No. 9 of the repayment schedule)

 

     
 

 

     
31 October 2006

 

     
 

 

     
Loan from Northern Bank

1,471.73

     
Interest expense

 

 

508.27

 
Cash at bank

 

1,980

   
(Please refer to instalment No. 10 of the repayment schedule)

 

     
 

 

     
30 November 2006

 

     
 

 

     
Loan from Northern Bank

1,480.31

     
Interest expense

 

 

499.69

 
Cash at bank

 

1,980

   
(Please refer to instalment No. 11 of the repayment schedule)

 

     
 

 

     
31 December 2006

 

     
 

 

     
Loan from Northern Bank

1,488.95

     
Interest expense

 

 

491.05

 
Cash at bank

 

1,980

   
(Please refer to instalment No. 12 of the repayment schedule)

 

     

The relevant “T” accounts shown below provide a clearer picture of the figures involved in respect of the release of loan and the repayments recorded during the year ended 31 December 2006:-

ABC Co. Ltd

General Ledger

Loan From Northern Bank (Balance Sheet)

DEBIT

CREDIT

Date Descriptions Folio

 $

Date Descriptions Folio

 $

2006

     

2006

     

31-Jan

Cash at bank  

         1,396.67

01-Jan

Cash at bank  

   100,000.00

28-Feb

Cash at bank  

         1,404.81

     

 

31-Mar

Cash at bank  

         1,413.01

     

 

30-Apr

Cash at bank  

         1,421.25

       

31-May

Cash at bank  

         1,429.54

       

30-Jun

Cash at bank  

         1,437.88

       

31-Jul

Cash at bank  

         1,446.27

       

31-Aug

Cash at bank  

         1,454.71

       

30-Sep

Cash at bank  

         1,463.19

       

31-Oct

Cash at bank  

         1,471.73

       

30-Nov

Cash at bank  

         1,480.31

       

31-Dec

Cash at bank  

         1,488.95

       

31-Dec

Balance C/F  

       82,691.68

       
     

     100,000.00

     

   100,000.00

     

 

     

 

               

Cash at bank (Balance Sheet)

DEBIT

CREDIT

Date Descriptions Folio

 $

Date Descriptions Folio

 $

2006

   

 

2006

     

01-Jan

Balance B/F  

         5,467.98

31-Jan

Loan from Northern Bank  

       1,396.67

01-Jan

Cash at bank  

     100,000.00

31-Jan

Interest expense  

           583.33

     

 

28-Feb

Loan from Northern Bank  

       1,404.81

     

 

28-Feb

Interest expense  

           575.19

     

 

31-Mar

Loan from Northern Bank  

       1,413.01

     

 

31-Mar

Interest expense  

           566.99

     

 

30-Apr

Loan from Northern Bank  

       1,421.25

     

 

30-Apr

Interest expense  

           558.75

     

 

31-May

Loan from Northern Bank  

       1,429.54

     

 

31-May

Interest expense  

           550.46

     

 

30-Jun

Loan from Northern Bank  

       1,437.88

     

 

30-Jun

Interest expense  

           542.12

     

 

31-Jul

Loan from Northern Bank  

       1,446.27

     

 

31-Jul

Interest expense  

           533.73

     

 

31-Aug

Loan from Northern Bank  

       1,454.71

     

 

31-Aug

Interest expense  

           525.29

     

 

30-Sep

Loan from Northern Bank  

       1,463.19

     

 

30-Sep

Interest expense  

           516.81

     

 

31-Oct

Loan from Northern Bank  

       1,471.73

     

 

31-Oct

Interest expense  

           508.27

     

 

30-Nov

Loan from Northern Bank  

       1,480.31

     

 

30-Nov

Interest expense  

           499.69

     

 

31-Dec

Loan from Northern Bank  

       1,488.95

     

 

31-Dec

Interest expense  

           491.05

     

 

31-Dec

Balance C/F  

     81,707.98

     

     105,467.98

     

   105,467.98

     

 

     

 

               

Interest expense (income statement)

DEBIT

CREDIT

Date Descriptions Folio

 $

Date Descriptions Folio

 $

2006

     

2006

     

31-Jan

Interest expense  

             583.33

31-Dec

To income statement  

       6,451.68

28-Feb

Interest expense  

             575.19

     

 

31-Mar

Interest expense  

             566.99

     

 

30-Apr

Interest expense  

             558.75

     

 

31-May

Interest expense  

             550.46

     

 

30-Jun

Interest expense  

             542.12

     

 

31-Jul

Interest expense  

             533.73

     

 

31-Aug

Interest expense  

             525.29

     

 

30-Sep

Interest expense  

             516.81

     

 

31-Oct

Interest expense  

             508.27

     

 

30-Nov

Interest expense  

             499.69

     

 

31-Dec

Interest expense  

             491.05

     

 

     

         6,451.68

     

       6,451.68

     

 

     

 

Before the income statement and balance sheet of ABC Co. Ltd. are finalized, a reclassification journal entry is required to present correctly the current portion and non-current portion of the Loan from Northern Bank. From the “T” account shown above, the outstanding amount of Loan from Northern Bank as at 31 December 2006 was $82,691.68 (31-Dec Balance C/F). From the loan repayment schedule, the principal sum expected to be repaid in Year 2 is $18,559.53. This is the portion of the loan expected to be repaid within 12 months from the year end i.e. 31 December 2006 and therefore should be presented as a current liabilities item. The non-current portion of the loan is calculated as follows:-

Principal sum outstanding as at 31 December 2006

            82,691.68

Principal sum expected to be repaid in the next 12 months

            (18,559.53)

Principal sum expected to be repaid after the next 12 months

            64,132.15

Assume the Loan from Northern Bank was originally classified as a current liabilities account, the following reclassification journal entry is required to reflect correctly the current portion and the non-current portion of the loan on the balance sheet:-

 

Balance Sheet

Income Statement

 

DR

CR

DR

CR

Loan from Northern Bank (Current liabilities)

 

64,132.15

     
Loan from Northern Bank (Non-Current liabilities)

 

 

 

64,132.15

 

 

The income statement and balance sheet of ABC Co. Ltd. after the above transactions being recorded in the respective accounts and also the impact of the $64,132.15 reclassification journal entry are as follows: –

Income Statement and Balance Sheet of ABC Co. Ltd.
         
Income Statement for the year ended 31 December 2006
  BEFORE

 Adjustment

 AFTER
   

 DR

 CR

 
 

 $

   

 $

Sales

          109,270.00

   

             109,270.00

Cost of Sales

–          40,875.00

   

–              40,875.00

Gross profit

            68,395.00

   

               68,395.00

Other income: –        
Rental income

            12,000.00

   

               12,000.00

Operating expenses: –        
Accountancy fee

–                800.00

   

–                    800.00

Depreciation of property, plant and equipment

–             4,400.00

   

–                4,400.00

Donation

–                500.00

   

–                    500.00

Electricity & water

–             3,340.00

   

–                3,340.00

Interest expense

–   6,451.68

   

–                6,451.68

Printing & stationery

–             1,697.00

   

–                1,697.00

Rental of premises

–          12,000.00

   

–              12,000.00

Salaries

–          27,865.00

   

–              27,865.00

Upkeep of office

–             3,547.00

   

–                3,547.00

Telephone charges

–             1,285.00

   

–                1,285.00

Travelling, petrol & toll charges

–             2,648.00

   

–                2,648.00

 

–          64,533.68

   

–              64,533.68

Net profit for the year

            15,861.32

   

               15,861.32

Retained profits B/F

            27,654.00

   

               27,654.00

Retained profits C/F

            43,515.32

   

               43,515.32

         
Balance Sheet as at 31 December 2006        
 

 $

   

 $

Non-current assets        
Property, plant and equipment

            19,600.00

   

               19,600.00

         
Current assets        
Inventories

              5,000.00

   

                  5,000.00

Trade receivables

            32,807.00

   

               32,807.00

Other receivables, deposits & prepayments:

 

   

 

Rental receivable

              3,000.00

   

                  3,000.00

Rental deposit

              3,000.00

   

                  3,000.00

Utility deposit

                  500.00

   

                     500.00

Cash and bank balances

          105,467.98

   

             105,467.98

 

          149,774.98

   

             149,774.98

Current liabilities        
Trade payables

–             3,588.00

   

–                3,588.00

Other payables and accruals

–          24,579.98

   

–              24,579.98

Loan from Northern Bank

– 82,691.68

   64,132.15

 

–   18,559.53

 

–        110,859.66

   

–              43,139.51

Net current assets

            38,915.32

   

             106,635.47

 

            58,515.32

   

             126,235.47

Financed by: –        
Share capital

            15,000.00

   

               15,000.00

Retained profits

            43,515.32

   

               43,515.32

 

            58,515.32

   

               58,515.32

Non-current Liabilities        
Loan from Northern Bank

 

  64,132.15

     64,132.15

 

            58,515.32

   

             122,647.47

More On Books of Original Entry – Cash Book

Cash Book is used to record cash transactions. However, due to the fact that there is a difference between cheques and the “hard cash”, normally these two types of transactions are recorded in two separate Books of Original Entry – Cheques transactions in Cash or Bank Book (I just refer to it as Cash Book) and “hard cash” transactions in Petty Cash Book.

For small businesses, a common format of Cash Book adopted is to present the “T” account and in multi-columns manner. For receipts, the transactions are recorded on the debit side of the Cash Book and for payments, on the credit side of the Cash Book. The total of each column at the end of each month would then be posted to the respective accounts in the General Ledger. The month end balance of each account would then be used to construct the Trial Balance before the Balance Sheet and the Income Statement are prepared (Method 1). However, when the daily collection from customers (it could be cash sales, collections from trade debtors or both), and also payments to suppliers are of large volume, recording of cash receipts in Cash Receipts Day Book or Journal and recording of cash payments in Payments Day Book or Journal may be a better option (Method 2).Refer to the examples in my previous post, “General Ledger? Journals? Day Books? Debtors Ledger? Creditors Ledger? Trial Balance?” and continue with the following additional transactions in the month of February 2007:-

Transactions in February 2007
  Date Descriptions Reference No. Amount Remark

1

01-Feb-07

Receive $3,000 from Big Co Ltd. OR01022007 3,000.00 Official Receipt No. OR01022007 issued.

2

01-Feb-07

Cash sales OR02022007 500.00 Official Receipt No. OR02022007 issued.

3

01-Feb-07

Collect rental of shop space for the month of February 2007 OR03022007 300.00 Official Receipt No. OR03022007 issued.

4

02-Feb-07

Purchase of stationery and printing of documents PV01022007 578.00 Cheque No: 20021 issued and payment voucher PV01022007 prepared to record payment

5

15-Feb-07

Cash purchases PV02022007 1,500.00 Cheque No: 20022 issued and payment voucher PV02022007 prepared to record payment

6

16-Feb-07

Cash purchases PV03022007 5,000.00 Cheque No: 20023 issued and payment voucher PV03022007 prepared to record payment

7

17-Feb-07

Cash Sales OR04022007 1,000.00 Official Receipt No. OR04022007 issued.

8

20-Feb-07

Sales on credit to Big Co Ltd. INV1005 2,000.00 Invoice no. 1005 issued.

9

28-Feb-07

Cash Sales OR05022007 6,000.00 Official Receipt No. OR05022007 issued.

10

28-Feb-07

Pay electricity biil for February 2007 PV04022007 157.89 Cheque No: 20024 issued and payment voucher PV04022007 prepared to record payment

11

28-Feb-07

Pay water bill for February 2007 PV05022007 37.87 Cheque No: 20025 issued and payment voucher PV05022007 prepared to record payment

12

28-Feb-07

Pay telephone bill for February 2007 PV06022007 46.68 Cheque No: 20026 issued and payment voucher PV06022007 prepared to record payment

13

28-Feb-07

Pay rental for February 2007 PV07022007 1,000.00 Cheque No: 20027 issued and payment voucher PV06022007 prepared to record payment

Method 1

Before proceed to recording the above transactions, you should first identify for each transaction what are the Books of Original Entry to use. All transactions EXCEPT transaction No. 8 are cash transactions and therefore Cash Book is to be used. For transaction No. 8 the Sales Day Book is the correct Book of Original Entry to be used.

 The Sales Day Book for the month of February 2007 is simple because there was only one transaction for the whole month:-

Sales Day Book

For ABC Co. Ltd, transaction No. 1 and No. 8 would have an impact on the amount owing by Big Co. Ltd. as at 28 February 2007. As there were no other transactions affecting the other trade debtors, the end balances brought forward from 31 January 2007 (refer to Balance B/F dated 1 February 2007) would also be the balance carried forward to the month of March 2007. The Sales Ledger after incorporating all the transactions in February 2007 would be as follows:-

Sales Ledger Or Debtors Ledger

The Cash Book of ABC Co. Ltd. is as follows:-

ABC Co. Ltd.

Cash at Bank

Northern Bank, Account No.: 123-456-789

Debit Side (Cash Receipts) Of the Cash Book

Debit Side (Cash Receipts) Of The Cash Book

Credit Side (Cash Payments) Of the Cash Book

At the end of February 2007, before ABC Co. Ltd. closes its books, all the transactions recorded in the Books of Original Entry (ie. The Sales Day Book and the Cash Book) would be added up and posted to the General Ledger by way of the following journal entries in the General Journals: –

After the posting of the transactions, the General Ledger would appear as follows:-

Did you notice that Rental Income, Electricity & Water, Telephone, Rent of Premises and Printing & Stationery are the new accounts created as a result of the transactions in the month of February 2007? All these accounts belong to the Income Statement and not the Balance Sheet as they are of income (Rental Income) and expense (Electricity & Water, Telephone, Rent of Premises and Printing & Stationery) in nature.

Also take note that the total of the end balance of each trade debtor in the Sales Ledger as at 28 February of $24,000 (Big Co. Ltd = $2,000; Small Co. Ltd. = $10,000; Not So Big Co. Ltd. = $7,000; Not So Small Co. Ltd. = $5,000) is exactly the same as the end balance of the Trade Debtors account in the General Ledger? The procedure of adding all the end balances in the Sales Ledger and checked for its agreement to the end Trade Debtors balance in the General Ledger is called “Reconciliation of debtors balances to the General Ledger”. This is an important procedure to detect errors of recording transactions in relation to trade debtors.

Based on the end balances of each account in the General Ledger, a trial balance would then be prepared: –

The Income Statement for the two months ended 28 February 2007 (ie. Comprising the month of January 2007 & February 2007) and the Balance Sheet as at 28 February 2007 would then be prepared: –

Method 2

Instead of preparing the Cash Book in “T” account manner, a Cash Receipts Journal and also a Cash Payment Journal are used to record cash transactions.

Referring to the transactions in the month of February 2007, all transactions are cash transactions except for transaction No. 8 and they would be classified into either transaction of receipt in nature or payment and be recorded in the Cash Receipts Journal and the Cash Payment Journal accordingly:-

You would notice the format of the Cash Receipts Journal is exactly the same as the Debit side of the Cash Book as shown in Method 1 and on the other hand, the Cash Payment Journal is the same as the Credit side of the Cash Book. In our example for discussion here, the transactions in February 2007 are minimal and therefore you probably could not see any substantial difference between the two methods. However, just imagine if you are dealing with a business having daily collections of more than 500 cheques and cash from customers and similarly payment of the same volume, you would need a very “long” and “wide” Cash Book, if Method 1 were chosen. Other than the Cash Receipts Journal and Cash Payment Journal, which effectively replaces the Cash Book discussed under Method 1 above, the rest of the records including the Sales Day Book, Sales Ledger, General Journals and the accounts in the General Ledger are the same and therefore I would not shown them again.

The advantage of having a Cash Receipts Journal and a Cash Payment Journal system of recording over the “T” account Cash Book is that the business entity could delegate the two functions i.e. the recording of cash receipts and cash payment to two different persons, whereas under the Method 1 Cash Book system, it is difficult to have two persons sharing the same Cash Book especially if the Cash Book is in the form of hardcopy ledger and not in computer spreadsheet.

Based on what we have discussed thus far, you should be able to see that whenever there are large transactions involved, a separate journal or day book may be a better choice of recording instead of choosing the “One Book for All Transactions” Method. In addition, when you have more than one entity that the business is dealing with, and the business wish to monitor the status of the dealings with these entities concerned such as the situation whereby a business has sales transactions on credit with many customers or purchases transactions with many suppliers, a separate ledger account to be maintained for each of these entities may be required. Can you think of any other situations whereby a separate ledger is maintained for any particular items? Have you heard of Projects Ledger for those companies in which the main activities are project based such as housing developers or contractors? What about stock ledger? Stock cards? Fixed assets register and others? All these ledgers, listing, cards or records created are called generally “Subsidiary Ledgers or Records” in accounting. This is because all these records shows the details or breakdown of a particular account item recorded in the General Ledger and if the end balance of these subsidiary ledgers or records at a particular time are added together, the total amount calculated must tally with the end balance of the respective account recorded in the General Ledger-This is what we called “Reconciliation of Subsidiary Ledgers/Records to General Ledger” in accounting and this is an important internal control procedure that must be performed.

General Ledger? Journals? Day Books? Debtors Ledger? Creditors Ledger? Trial Balance?

Not sure about these? In my previous post on “ Accounting Documents & Accounting Cycles “, I have discussed the commonly used accounting documents (function is record occurrence of transactions) and also examples of accounting cycles (Sales, Purchases, Cash Receipts Payments).

In order to record the occurrence of transactions in a systematic manner, some form of record keeping must be adopted. The accounting documents such as official receipts, sales invoices, bills etc. are the “Source Documents” in which these documents serve as the evidence of the occurrence of transactions and are based upon to record the transactions as the first entry point of an accounting recording system – “Books of Original Entry”. Examples of books of original entry are the following: –

  • Sales Journal or Sales Day Book – The function is to record sales transactions.
  • Purchases Journal or Purchases Day Book – The function is to record purchases transactions.
  • Cash Book or Bank Book – The function is to record bank transactions.
  • Petty Cash Book – The function is to record petty cash transactions.
  • General Journal – This is used to record those transactions that are not recorded in other books of original entry, i.e. it plays the role of “catching the rest” of the transactions.

Classifying/Grouping Transactions in terms of their frequency of occurrence

Some transactions occur frequently whereas some just occasionally or may be they are of such a pattern that they occur on a fixed intervals – every month, semi annual or annually (Rentals, utility charges, subscription fees & etc).

  • Frequent Transactions

    Sales, purchases, receipts from customers and payment to suppliers.

  • Occasional Transactions (No fixed pattern of occurrence)

    Disposal of assets (e.g. car, computer), penalty imposed by local council for rules violation, donations to charitable organisations, loss resulting from pilferage of stocks etc.

  • Transactions That Occur On Fixed Intervals

    Rental expense, annual trade association member fee, annual audit fee, monthly building management fee.

The books of original entry (Sales Journal or Sales Day Book, Purchase Journal of Purchases Day Book, Cash Book or Bank Book, Petty Cash Book) serve their function best when dealing with the situation of large volume of transactions. It is not necessary that every business always have large volume of transactions. Some businesses have lesser than 20 sales invoices during the whole financial year. In this situation, these business entities have the “option” of not using the Sales Journal or Sales Day Book or the other books of original entry due to low volume of transactions and opt for just recording all the transactions in the General Journal.

Assume ABC Co. Ltd has 4 sales transactions in the month of January 2007 in which the details of the sales are as follows: –

Date

Customers

Invoice No.

$

2007
01-Jan Big Co. Ltd

1001

3,000.00
02-Jan Small Co. Ltd

1002

5,000.00
15-Jan Not So Big Co. Ltd

1003

10,000.00
30-Jan Not So Small Co. Ltd

1004

7,000.00

The Sales Journal or Sales Day Book of ABC Co. Ltd would show the details of the sales as follows: –

Example of Sales Journal or Sales Day Book

ABC Co. Ltd
Sales Day Book
Page 1
Date Descriptions Invoice No. Folio

$

2007
01-Jan Big Co. Ltd 1001 SL3 3,000.00
02-Jan Small Co. Ltd 1002 SL20 5,000.00
15-Jan Not So Big Co. Ltd 1003 SL5 10,000.00
30-Jan Not So Small Co. Ltd 1004 SL6 7,000.00
25,000.00

GJ1

Based on the four sales transactions of ABC Co. Ltd for the month of January 2007, the extracts of the Sales Ledger or Debtors Ledger are as follows: –

Extracts of Sales Ledger or Debtors Ledger

ABC Co. Ltd

Page 3

Sales Ledger

Big Co. Ltd

DEBIT

CREDIT

Date Descriptions Folio

$

Date Descriptions Folio

$

2007 2007
01-Jan Sales SDB1 3,000.00

ABC Co. Ltd

Page 5

Sales Ledger

Not So Big Co. Ltd

DEBIT

CREDIT

Date Descriptions Folio

$

Date Descriptions Folio

$

2007 2007
15-Jan Sales SDB1 10,000.00

ABC Co. Ltd

Page 6

Sales Ledger

Not So Small Co. Ltd

DEBIT

CREDIT

Date Descriptions Folio

$

Date Descriptions Folio

$

2007 2007
30-Jan Sales SDB1 7,000.00

ABC Co. Ltd

Page 20

Sales Ledger

Small Co. Ltd

DEBIT

CREDIT

Date Descriptions Folio

$

Date Descriptions Folio

$

2007 2007
02-Jan Sales SDB1 5,000.00

Take note of the Folio column of both the Sales Day Book and the Sales Ledger. Could you see the connections? The Folio column is used to locate the relevant page of each transaction. On each of the relevant page of the Sales Ledger, you see an “Account” is created for each trade debtor. One distinct feature of an Account in accounting is that it must have a DEBIT side and also a CREDIT side in order to show the rules of DOUBLE ENTRY system that have been discussed in my previous posts. On the other hand, the Sales Day Book DOES NOT have accounts in it! It is just a listing showing the sales transactions of ABC Co. Ltd in chronological order – i.e. a journal. At the end of January 2007 (31January 2007), each transaction in the “$” column of the Sales Day Book is then added up together to arrive at the month end total of $25,000. Based on the total sales transactions of $25,000 a journal entry is created in the General Journals as follows: –

Extract of General Journals

ABC Co. Ltd Page 1
General Journals
Date Descriptions Folio Debit Credit
2007
31-Jan Trade Debtors GL20 25,000.00
Sales GL30 25,000.00
(Being sales for the month of January 2007)


Using the above journal, the sales for the month of January 2007 are “posted” to the General Ledger – meaning is recorded in the General Ledger. The relevant pages of the General Ledger after the “posting” of the January 2007’s sales is as follows: –

Extracts of General Ledger

ABC Co. Ltd

Page 20

General Ledger

Trade Debtors

DEBIT

CREDIT

Date Descriptions Folio

$

Date Descriptions Folio

$

2007 2007
31-Jan Sales GJ1 25,000.00

ABC Co. Ltd

Page 30

General Ledger

Sales

DEBIT

CREDIT

Date Descriptions Folio

$

Date Descriptions Folio

$

2007 2007
31-Jan Trade Debtors GJ1 25,000.00


Assume ABC Co. Ltd commenced its business on 1 January 2007 by way of injecting $10,000 cash into its bank account. In addition, the total purchases transaction in the month of January 2007 was $20,000 (The recording of the transactions in the Purchases Day Book or Purchases Journal and also the Creditors Ledger or Purchases Ledger is similar to the sales transactions & therefore is not shown), the journal entries in the General Journals and the relevant pages of the General Ledger are as follows: –

Extract of General Journals

ABC Co. Ltd

Page 1

General Journals
Date Descriptions Folio Debit Credit
2007
01-Jan Cash at Bank GL1 10,000.00
Share Capital GL2 10,000.00
(Being injection of cash as initial capital)
2007
31-Jan Purchases GL35 25,000.00
Trade Creditors GL25 25,000.00
(Being purchases for the month of January 2007)

ABC Co. Ltd

Page 1

General Ledger

Cash at Bank

DEBIT

CREDIT

Date Descriptions Folio

$

Date Descriptions Folio

$

2007 2007
31-Jan Share Capital GJ1 10,000.00

ABC Co. Ltd

Page 2

General Ledger

Share Capital

DEBIT

CREDIT

Date Descriptions Folio

$

Date Descriptions Folio

$

2007 2007
31-Jan Cash at Bank GJ1 10,000.00

ABC Co. Ltd

Page 25

General Ledger

Trade Creditors

DEBIT

CREDIT

Date Descriptions Folio

$

Date Descriptions Folio

$

2007 2007
31-Jan Purchases GJ1 20,000.00

ABC Co. Ltd

Page 35

General Ledger

Purchases

DEBIT

CREDIT

Date Descriptions Folio

$

Date Descriptions Folio

$

2007 2007
31-Jan Trade Creditors GJ1 20,000.00

Assume ABC Co. Ltd “closes” its accounts for the month of January 2007, ABC Co. Ltd would then compute the total of each of the account in the General Ledger and arrive at the respective closing balance (Balance C/F) shown as follows: –

Extracts of General Ledger

ABC Co. Ltd

Page 1

General Ledger

Cash at Bank

DEBIT

CREDIT

Date Descriptions Folio

$

Date Descriptions Folio

$

2007 2007
31-Jan Share Capital GJ1 10,000.00 31-Jan Balance C/F 10,000.00
10,000.00 10,000.00

ABC Co. Ltd

Page 2

General Ledger

Share Capital

DEBIT

CREDIT

Date Descriptions Folio

$

Date Descriptions Folio

$

2007 2007
31-Jan Balance C/F 10,000.00 31-Jan Cash at Bank GJ1 10,000.00
10,000.00 10,000.00

ABC Co. Ltd

Page 20

General Ledger

Trade Debtors

DEBIT

CREDIT

Date Descriptions Folio

$

Date Descriptions Folio

$

2007 2007
31-Jan Sales GJ1 25,000.00 31-Jan Balance C/F 25,000.00
25,000.00 25,000.00

ABC Co. Ltd

Page 25

General Ledger

Trade Creditors

DEBIT

CREDIT

Date Descriptions Folio

$

Date Descriptions Folio

$

2007 2007
31-Jan Balance C/F 20,000.00 31-Jan Purchases GJ1 20,000.00
20,000.00 20,000.00

ABC Co. Ltd

Page 30

General Ledger

Sales

DEBIT

CREDIT

Date Descriptions Folio

$

Date Descriptions Folio

$

2007 2007
31-Jan Balance C/F 25,000.00 31-Jan Trade Debtors GJ1 25,000.00
25,000.00 25,000.00

ABC Co. Ltd

Page 35

General Ledger

Purchases

DEBIT

CREDIT

Date Descriptions Folio

$

Date Descriptions Folio

$

2007 2007
31-Jan Trade Creditors GJ1 20,000.00 31-Jan Balance C/F 20,000.00
20,000.00 20,000.00

C/F is “Carried Forward”. Each of these month end balances will be the beginning balance for the month of February 2007. The Balance C/F of each account in the General Ledger is calculated by computing the difference of the total debit column and the total credit column of that account. Based on the Balance C/F of EACH account in the General Ledger, a Trial Balance is prepared and look like this: –

ABC Co. Ltd

Trial Balance as at 31 January 2007

Debit Credit
$ $
GL1 Cash at Bank 10,000.00
GL2 Share Capital 10,000.00
GL20 Trade Debtors 25,000.00
GL25 Trade Creditors 20,000.00
GL30 Sales 25,000.00
GL35 Purchases 20,000.00
55,000.00 55,000.00

Trial Balance is a tool to detect errors in transactions recording. This is because, using the double entry system, each transaction MUST be recorded two times – One debit entry and one credit entry. Using the logic of double entry system, the total debit balances of all the accounts in the General Ledger MUST tally with the total of all the accounts with credit balances. After the Trial Balance is prepared, the Balance Sheet of ABC Co. Ltd. as at 31 January 2007and the Income Statement of ABC Co. Ltd for the month of January 2007 would then be prepared: –

ABC Co. Ltd

Income Statement for the month of January 2007

$

Sales

25,000.00

A

Cost of Sales:
Opening Inventories

B

Purchases

-20,000.00

C

Closing Inventories

D

-20,000.00

E = B+C-D

Gross Profit

5,000.00

F = A+E

Other Income

G

Other Expenses

H

Net Profit

5,000.00

I = F+G+H

ABC Co. Ltd
Balance Sheet as at 31 January 2007

$

Assets
Trade Debtors

25,000.00

J

Cash at Bank

10,000.00

K

35,000.00

L = J+K

Liabilities
Trade Creditors

-20,000.00

M

15,000.00

N = L+M

Owners’ Equity
Share Capital

10,000.00

O

Accumulated Profits

5,000.00

P

15,000.00

Q = O+P

The process chart on how transactions are recorded, summarised posted to the General Ledger up to the stage of the preparation of the Balance Sheet and the Income Statement is as follows: –


Accounting Documents & Accounting Cycles

It is important that you know the type of documents commonly used to record the occurrence of transactions (Can you think of any examples?). Some of them are:-

  • Official receipts

Normally you will get these when you make payment over the counter to the cashier

  • Cash bills

You seldom get these nowadays. However, if you made purchase of goods from a shop that has no cash register, normally you will get these as proof of payments.

  • Bills

Electricity, water, quit rent & assessment, services. Normally you received these and asked to pay by a specified date.

  • Invoices

Normally you receive these when you purchase physical goods. Same function as bills, invoices ask the recipients to pay by a specified date.

  • Delivery Orders

You get these when you receive the goods that you have ordered previously. However, delivery order is different from invoice, its function is to record the descriptions and quantity of the goods concern, whereas, invoice will state the unit price and also the terms of payments.

The above are the common types of documents you receive when you purchase goods/services (i.e. as a customer/consumer). On the other hand, to the issuing entities, all these documents are issued to their customers when there are sale transactions. Example, for a customer the invoice that he/she received is called specifically as “Purchase Invoices” or “Supplier Invoices”. On the other hand, for a company who sell goods to its customers, the invoices used are referred to as “Sales Invoices”.
  • Purchase Orders

Purchase orders are used to order goods from your suppliers in accordance with your specifications and quantity of the goods.

  • Customer Orders

Customer orders are used for the customers to fill up in ordering the goods.

  • Credit Notes

Credit notes are issued to customers to inform them that their account has been “credited” for the reasons specified in the credit notes (meaning is there is a reduction in the amount that the customer has to pay because of e.g. overcharging of price, defective goods returned, discounts etc.)

  • Debit Notes

Debit notes are issued to customers to inform them that their account has been “debited” for the reasons specified in the debit notes (in contrasts to credit notes, debit notes has the opposite function-the customer is informed that they have to pay more because of e.g. under charging of price, additional charge for miscellaneous services etc.)

  • Payment Vouchers

Payment vouchers are used to record payments made by the business entities in chronological orders, normally in respect of cheque payments.

  • Petty Cash Vouchers

Petty cash vouchers are used to record payments made by the business entities in chronological orders in respect of cash.

  • Goods Received Notes

Goods received notes are used to record receiving of goods purchased. Please take note that the function of Goods Received Notes (GRNs) is different compared to that of the Delivery Orders an entity received from its’ suppliers. Just imagine this – if the entity receives goods from different suppliers, lets say on average of 20 in a day, what would happened if it does not have a systematic way of recording the receiving of goods? HAVOC! However, for many small entities that have minimal purchase transactions, GRNs may not be used as each incident of receiving goods could still be monitored easily. For good control purposes, a receiving logbook is used to record the details of receiving goods (Date, Name of Supplier, Delivery Order Number, Description of goods).

  • Stock Cards & Stock Ledger

Stock cards are used to monitor physical movement of stocks. For better control purposes, stock cards are normally kept and recorded by storekeepers, and only quantity of stocks, stock codes and description of stocks are recorded on the stock cards WITHOUT the unit costs indicated. This is because it is not necessary for storekeepers to know the unit costs of stock (in a way to reduce the risk of pilferage of more expensive stock items). Stock cards are updated based on the evidence of stock-in (goods received notes and delivery orders from suppliers if no goods received notes system practised) and stock-out (delivery orders to customers) In addition to stock cards, some business entities also maintain another type of stock record – stock ledger. Stock ledger is updated with all the details of stocks including the stock code, descriptions, quantity and the total value of each type of stock based on supplier invoices received. At every fixed interval e.g. month end, the quantities of stocks reflected in the stock cards could then be checked and reconciled to the quantities of stocks recorded in the stock ledger and any variances to be investigated and followed-up.

For most business entities, the two most important activities are sales and purchases. And another important accounting cycle, which in a way is related to these two activities, is the cash receipt and payment cycle.A simplified activities chart for a trading company’s sales cycle is as follow:-

Sales Cycle  

saleschart 

 

In each activity, try to list down the type of documents used based on what you know thus far. Compare to the following:-

  • Receive customers’ inquiry

– This can be in many ways, walk-in, telephone, fax, email etc. For internal information record purposes, a separate file to keep track of customers’ inquiry is desirable because any form contact from potential customers should be treated seriously. However, this is not part of the accounting documents because no transactions occurred at this point in time.

  • Check availability of stocks

– Obviously, the store keeper will be contacted to make sure sufficient quantity of stocks are available (stock cards) or else exact date of new arrival of stocks should then be checked and communicated to the customers.

  • Inquire mode of payment

– No documents are used.

  • Check creditworthiness of customer if on credit

– Some form of database of customer maintained by the business entity would be referred to for existing customers. Those with outstanding balances unpaid should be checked as to any outstanding debts exceeding the credit period allowed and also as to the credit limit of the customers. For new customers, details required should be obtained and submitted to the approval of responsible personnel e.g. Sales Manager before accepting orders.

  • Check and agree on pricing

– Approved price list. This is also not part of the accounting documents. Cash purchases normally are cheaper compared to those on credit.

  • Complete customer orders

– Obviously the customer orders. Based on the customer orders, further arrangement such as packing of stocks, transportation arrangement & etc. will be arranged for the delivery of stocks to the customers.

  • Store prepares stocks for delivery

– Initially based on customer orders to prepare stocks. Update stock cards based on actual quantity of stock-out based on delivery orders to customers.

  • Generate delivery orders

– Obviously the delivery orders to customers.

  • Generate sales invoices

– Obviously the sales invoices to customers.

  • Delivery to customers

– The physical stocks together with the delivery orders and the sales invoices to the customers.

Note: Some of the documents generated are made more than one copy. For example, the customer orders could be printed in three copies – the original to the customer, a copy to store and another kept by the sales department. This is dependent on the requirement of each business entity. A document flowchart could also be drawn up to show how the accounting documents are generated and used throughout the whole sales cycle (Not shown here). It is very often that sales invoices are handed over to the customer together with the delivery orders and the goods because payment is expected to be received faster compared to if the sales invoices are generated and given to the customers at a date subsequent to delivery of goods. 

 

Purchases Cycle

A simplified activities chart for a trading company’s purchases cycle (assume purchase on credit term) is as follow:-

PurchasesChart

 

In each activity, try to list down the type of documents used based on what you know thus far. Compare to the following:-

  • Raise purchase requisition

– Dependent on the nature of the businesses, when stocks level reach re-ordering level, for “back-to-back” orders where no stocks are kept, when receiving customers’order.

  • Contact suppliers and obtain quotations

– Dependent on the policy of the business entities concerned, some require minimum three quotations to be obtained from different supplier for comparison.

  • Select supplier in accordance with policy set

– Dependent on the policy of the business entities, selection of supplier may not necessary based the lowest price quoted, past dealings that give indication of quality of goods, speed of delivery & etc. should also be considered in selecting supplier.

  • Generate purchase orders

– Once the supplier is selected, purchase orders are generated.

  • Placing orders with supplier

– Approved purchase order is given to the selected supplier.

  • Receiving goods together with delivery orders and invoices

– Checking the correct specification, condition and quantity of good received by matching to the purchase order raised previously.

  • Generate goods received notes

– Obviously the goods received notes and also update the stock cards.

  • Delivery notes, invoices and goods received notes to Accounts Department for checking and payment

– Delivery notes, supplier invoices and good received notes would be handled over to the Accounts Department for checking and prepare payment. Stock ledger will be updated

Note: Purchase orders are generated in multiple copies – example, the original copy to the supplier, one copy kept by the Purchasing Department, one copy to the Store and one copy to the Accounts Department. Sometimes, the delivery orders and invoices received from the supplier are handed over from the store receiving goods to the Purchasing Department instead of directly to the Accounts Department. The Purchasing Department would perform the checking role on the purchases. Once approved by the Purchasing Department, the Accounts Department would proceed straight to updating stock ledger and payment.

Cash Receipt and Payment Cycle
 
I will not show this cycle in terms of activities chart as the procedures involved are much simpler compared to the sales and purchase cycles. However, the typical procedures in receiving cash and payments would be discussed.

Receiving cash

Dependent on the nature of business, the mode of receiving payment from customers includes cash, cheque, direct deposit to the bank account via wire-transfer & credit card. Can you think of others? The most important control checkpoint in receiving payments from customers is to be able to account for each and every single payment received and ensure that it is deposited into the bank account of the business entity. For this purpose, pre-numbered official receipt is used. For cash collected from customers, it should be counted at the end of the day and be deposited into the bank account of the business entity the soonest possible. A listing of official receipt indicating the total receipts of the day should then be prepared, matched to the bank deposit slips and properly approved. Similarly for other form of receipts, cheques, credit cards, wire transfer & etc. as soon as they are deposited into the bank account of the business entity, checking of the money deposited to the official receipts MUST BE DONE. The most frequent problem that I have encountered in respect of receipts from customers is in the situation whereby customers deposited payment directly into the bank account of the business entity. If no systematic procedures established with regard to this, the result is unidentified receipts appearing in the bank statements and it could result in unnecessary time and effort spent to trace the identity of the payee. Proper deposit form should be distributed to each customer who wish to make payment in this manner and make sure that a copy is completed properly with all the required payment details and forward a copy to the business entity.

Payments

Payments could be made for purchases in the form of cash for small sum and cheques for larger amounts. For cash payments, petty cash vouchers are used and each payment must be supported by the relevant supporting documents such as bills and official receipts. For cheque payments or wire-transfers, payment vouchers are used. All the relevant payment supporting documents such as invoices, bills & etc. must be enclosed together and properly checked and approved.

In addition to the above, can you name the common types of documents that are used by business entities? (different business entities in different industries may have their own special type of documents pertaining to their industries)

Various Types of Transactions – Collection from Other Source of Revenue and Income, Compensation Received for Loss of Assets (Part 4e)

Business entities may encounter some unfortunate events such as fire, flood or others that cause damage to their assets. After assessment of the damages caused, the insurance companies will then pay the relevant compensation to these business entities. If the assets damaged are fixed assets, the relevant double entries involved in the recording of the loss of the assets have been illustrated in my post: Various Types of Transactions – Pat 4d, Collection from Other Source of Revenue and Income (Proceeds from Disposal of Assets).However, if the damaged assets are inventories or stocks, the carrying value of the inventories or stock should be deducted against the compensation received to determine the net loss:-

$

Compensation received

XXXX

Carrying value of inventories

(XXXX)

Loss on damaged inventories

(XXXX)*

*Loss is shown here because the amount of compensation paid by the insurance company would normally not exceed the carrying value of the inventories.

The double entries involved in the recording of the recognition of the loss of damaged inventories are different, depending on the method of recording inventories in the general ledger, i.e. Perpetual Method or Periodic Method. Please refer to my post: Inventories or Stocks – Part 2, Methods of Recording in General Ledger for detailed illustrations of these two methods.

Example

The financial period of ABC Co. Ltd. is from 1 January to 31 December. On 1 January 2006, ABC Co. Ltd paid cash to purchase 1,000 trading goods of $20 each. On 31 July 2006, 800 units were sold at $25 each. On 30 September 2006, 100 units were damaged due to flood. On 15 October 2006, ABC Co. Ltd received a cheque of $1,800 from the insurance company as compensation.

Perpetual Method of recording Inventories

The relevant double entries are:-

1. On 1 January 2006

Balance Sheet

Income Statement

DR

CR

DR

CR

Inventories

20,000

Cash at bank

20,000

2. On 31 July 2006

Balance Sheet

Income Statement

DR

CR

DR

CR

Cash at bank

20,000

Sales

20,000

Balance Sheet

Income Statement

DR

CR

DR

CR

Cost of sales

16,000

Inventories

*16,000

*800 units X $20 per unit

3. On 30 September 2006

Balance Sheet

Income Statement

DR

CR

DR

CR

Loss on damaged inventories

2,000

Inventories

2,000

4. On 15 October 2006

Balance Sheet

Income Statement

DR

CR

DR

CR

Cash at bank

1,800

Loss on damaged inventories

1,800

The income statement and extract of the balance sheet of ABC Co. Ltd. are shown below:-

Income Statement and Balance Sheet of ABC Co. Ltd.
Income Statement for the year ended 31 December 2006

$

Sales

20,000

A

Less: Cost of Sales

16,000

B

Gross profit

4,000

C = A – B

Other income

Operating expenses: –
Loss on damaged inventories (2,000 – 1,800)

-200

D

Net profit for the year

3,800

E = C + D

Extract of the Balance Sheet as at 31 December 2006

$

Current assets
Inventories

2,000

Trade receivables

XXXX

Other receivables, deposits & prepayments:

Rental receivable

XXXX

Rental deposit

XXXX

Utility deposit

XXXX

Cash and bank balances

XXXX

XXXX

Periodic Method of recording Inventories

The relevant double entries are:-

1. On 1 January 2006

Balance Sheet

Income Statement

DR

CR

DR

CR

Cost of sales – Purchases

20,000

Cash at bank

24,000

2. On 31 July 2006

Balance Sheet

Income Statement

DR

CR

DR

CR

Cash at bank

20,000

Sales

20,000

3. On 30 September 2006

Balance Sheet

Income Statement

DR

CR

DR

CR

Loss on damaged inventories

2,000

Cost of sales – Transfer to loss on damaged inventories

2,000

4. On 15 October 2006

Balance Sheet

Income Statement

DR

CR

DR

CR

Cash at bank

1,800

Loss on damaged inventories

1,800

5. On 31 December 2006

Balance Sheet

Income Statement

DR

CR

DR

CR

Inventories

*2,000

Cost of sales – Closing inventories

2,000

*This closing inventories balance is usually determined by way of conducting a stock counting exercise at year end – 100 units X $20 each.

The income statement and extract of the balance sheet of ABC Co. Ltd. are shown below:-

Income Statement and Balance Sheet of ABC Co. Ltd.
Income Statement for the year ended 31 December 2006

$

Sales

20,000

A

Less: Cost of Sales
Opening inventories

Purchases

20,000

Transfer to loss on damaged inventories

-2,000

Closing inventories

-2,000

16,000

B

Gross profit

4,000

C = A – B

Other income

Operating expenses
Loss on damaged inventories (2,000 – 1,800)

-200

D

Net profit for the year

3,800

E = C + D

Extract of the Balance Sheet as at 31 December 2006

$

Current assets
Inventories

2,000

Trade receivables

XXXX

Other receivables, deposits & prepayments:

Rental receivable

XXXX

Rental deposit

XXXX

Utility deposit

XXXX

Cash and bank balances

XXXX

XXXX

Various Types of Transactions – Introduction (Part 1)

It is easier to understand the basic principles and concepts of accounting once you are familiar with the types of transactions that a typical business entity has to deal with. There is no better place to start with knowing what kind of receipts a typical business receives and also the type of payments made. Even though numerous transactions nowadays are done on credit, eventually the amount owed is expected to be settled or paid.

Receipts

Generally, the receipt transactions of a typical business include the following:-

· Contribution of capital from owners

· Collection from sales or services rendered (cash sales or payments received from trade debtors). This is usually the major source of revenue or income of the business entity

· Collection from other source of revenue or income:-

o Interest income

This is earned through deposits placement with financial institutions. Sometimes, it is also earned through lending of money to third parties (Some countries have strict laws governing money lending activities) o Dividend income

This is earned through investment of shares in another company. It is a return on investment made.

o Rental income

This is earned through the letting of its assets (property, machinery, equipment & etc).

o Proceeds from disposal of assets

These are in respect of the money received as a result of the disposal of property, machinery, equipment & etc.

o Compensation received for loss of assets

Compensation received from insurance companies for stolen or damaged assets.

· Disbursement/Release of principal sum of loans or borrowings from third parties (usually financial institutions)

· Refund of deposits placed earlier with third parties

o E.g. The refund of rental and utility deposits upon termination of rental of premises.

Payments

Generally, they are for the following purposes: –

· For the inventories/stocks and related costs in which those inventories or stocks are meant for subsequent sale. (Generally all of these are called inventory costs)

· For capital expenditure.

· For revenue expenditure.

· For tax on the profits generated (due to income tax law requirements)

· For distribution of profits back to the owners in the form of dividends

· Sometimes as short term advance of money or loan to other entities ( it could be individuals including the owners, directors, employees or non-individuals such as companies who have business dealing with it)

· Of course on the other hand, it could be for repayment of loan or short term advance include interest for the money the business entities had borrowed earlier

· For refundable deposits of money paid to third parties or prepayment of capital and revenue expenditure

· Payment for investment in shares

· Deposit of money with financial institutions

· In less frequent instances, return of capital back to the owners

I will discuss the above one by one in my subsequent posts. However I am going to discuss briefly here on the double entries involved for the above transactions.

Receipts

For all receipt transactions above, if the transactions were in cash or cheques, the debit entry must be made to the petty cash or cash at bank account. The question here is – what should be the credit entry? Which account? Is it a credit to an income statement item account or to a balance sheet item account?

Balance Sheet

Income Statement

DR

CR

DR

CR

Cash at bank/Petty Cash

XXXX

?

?

?

Payments

On the other hand, if the transactions were in cash or cheques, the credit entry must be made to the petty cash or cash at bank account. The question is – what should be the debit entry? Which account? Is it a debit to an income statement item account or a debit to a balance sheet item account?

Balance Sheet

Income Statement

DR

CR

DR

CR

?

?

?

Cash at bank/Petty Cash

XXXX